Baruch Spinoza

Baruch (de) Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, born in Amsterdam, the Dutch Republic, and mostly known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza. One of the foremost and seminal thinkers of the Enlightenment, modern biblical criticism, and 17th-century Rationalism, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered "one of the most important philosophers—and certainly the most radical—of the early modern period". Inspired by Stoicism, Jewish Rationalism, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Descartes, and a variety of heterodox religious thinkers of his day. His controversial ideas challenged the divine origin of the Hebrew Bible and the power of religious authorities, Jewish and Christian alike.

Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese-Jewish community of Amsterdam, where his father Michael was a leading figure. His schooling was curtailed, and he joined his father's importing business, following the unexpected death of his older brother. The previously prosperous business was in deep trouble when his father died in 1654. While an active member of the synagogue, Spinoza developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible, the nature of the Divine, and questioned rabbinic authority, but kept his views to himself until 1655. The break with rabbinic authorities coincided with the collapse of the family business and the loss of his honored position within the synagogue as a financial supporter. When he openly defied rabbinic authorities in 1655-56, they issued a herem (חרם‎) against him, expelling him from the congregation; he was shunned by Jewish society at age 23, including by his own family. He was frequently called an "atheist" by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the existence of God. Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as an optical lens grinder, collaborating on microscope and telescope lens designs with Constantijn and Christiaan Huygens. The center of his life was philosophy, and he had a dedicated clandestine circle of supporters, who met in person to discuss the writings he shared with them. The secrecy was necessary because his ideas were so explosive. He died at the age of 44 in 1677 from a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis. His unpublished manuscripts were removed from his lodgings, to prevent their destruction, and his circle of supporters prepared his works with speed and secrecy for posthumous publication in both their original Latin and Dutch. In June 1678—just over a year after Spinoza's death—the States of Holland banned his entire works, since they "contain very many profane, blasphemous and atheistic propositions." The prohibition included the owning, reading, distribution, copying, and restating of Spinoza's books, and even the reworking of his fundamental ideas. Shortly after (1679/1690) his books were added to the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.Spinoza's philosophy encompasses nearly every area of philosophical discourse, including metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy, ethics, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of science. It earned Spinoza an enduring reputation as one of the most important and original thinkers of the seventeenth century. Spinoza's philosophy is largely contained in two books: the Theologico-Political Treatise, published anonymously in his lifetime in Latin, and the Ethics, published posthumously. He also left behind a number of letters that help to illuminate his ideas and provide some insight into what may have been motivating his views. Although cautious in his lifetime about publication, his death and his stalwart supporters' efforts to publish his work in Latin and in Dutch allowed his ideas to circulate to a wider educated readership, despite authorities' concerted efforts to suppress them.